The Making of a City Through War

Race and Trade in Eagle Pass During the Civil War

By Connie Gomez

The King Cotton Diplomacy policy enacted by Confederate President Jefferson Davis dominated Civil War economics in the South and led to transformational change in southern border towns of Texas such as Eagle Pass. The southwestern city was first established following the military occupation of Fort Duncan by the U.S. Army during the Mexican-American War but saw a population decline following the removal of forces at the end of the war. Robert E. Lee urged for regarrison in 1860 due to threats from Native tribes and Mexican encroachment, but the fort was ultimately abandoned once again due to pre-Civil War tensions. During the Civil War, the city was occupied by Confederate forces and faced Union advancements while conducting extensive cotton trade with Mexico. The Union eventually claimed the fort and provided the environment for anti-secession residents to return to the area. Eagle Pass during the Civil War captures the devastating effects on working-class immigrants and the rise of economic development under military occupation along the borderlands. In 1863, Confederate orders moving trade from Brownsville to Eagle Pass made the city a key trade point and established major roads that gave Eagle Pass its nickname of “La Puerta de Mexico,” “Mexico’s Door.” The Civil War saw Eagle Pass emerge as a commercial hub with international ties due to the diverse demographics of its residents, Special Orders on trade, and Confederate military occupation.

Historians have analyzed Lower South Texas during the Civil War through the population demographics and economics of border towns but tend to neglect the contributions of Eagle Pass and the Mexican Texans, or Tejanos, as they are known. Historian Jerry D. Thompson argues Tejanos enlisted due to “paternalistic tradition…and the merciless patron system” and that the Rio Grande would have been lost without the Tejano company led by Santos Benavides, a Laredo commercial elite who oversaw Eagle Pass and Laredo.^[1] Historian Clayton E. Jewett, on the other hand, argues the need for economic stability influenced residents to oppose secession as “politicians believed that Texas’s commercial interests would best be protected in the Union,” but welcomed the economic opportunity of trade once it was moved from Brownsville to Eagle Pass.^[2] Historian Fredericka Meiners also focuses on the importance of the economy but argues the conflicting political orders and slow control of cotton “remained weak too long, and that weakness hastened collapse” of Texas’ economy.^[3] Historian Alfred Jackson Hanna argues from a transnational point of view claiming “the strife-torn Rio Grande became internationally strategic” as the “Back Door of the Confederacy,” with an immigrant population increase in the borders overseeing trade.^[4] Most arguments focus on cotton dealings and economics but ignore the racial diversity and political views that drove those economic choices. Thompson challenges the traditional narrative that downplays the contributions of Tejanos but fails to address how their enrollment was influenced by class and economics beyond the patron system. The prosperity of Eagle Pass can be understood from the demographics of the residents and relations with Mexico while under Confederate control.

Lower South Texas counties such as Eagle Pass openly opposed secession and the Confederacy, making them outliers against the pro-secession South. A majority of Texas voted to secede, citing states’ rights and slavery, with only three areas voting to stay in the Union: northern counties from Montague to Lamar, central counties encompassing Austin and Bastrop, and frontier counties like Uvalde and Medina.^[5] All counties that voted against secession had diverse populations or faced border security issues that the Union forces provided safety from.^[6] Following the decision to secede, unrest was seen in the form of protests such as the one in Zapata County led by Tejanos. The group marched to Carrizo and “proceeded to issue a ‘pronunciamento’ against the Confederacy,” which was answered by Captain Mat Nolan, who “to ensure peace in the county…ordered his men to attack.”^[7] Some Tejanos let their opposition to the Confederacy be known with similar uprisings, whether they shared Union sentiment or not, while others did not care for the war at all. Though there were no protests in Eagle Pass, the city was influenced by both its community and border security concerns when voting 80 to 3 in favor of staying in the Union.^[8] The community was not necessarily Unionist, but they did openly disapprove of the Confederacy. A large contribution to the opposition of the Confederacy came from the diverse community comprised of migrant settlers.

The political views of the community in Eagle Pass were influenced by the diverse demographics of its inhabitants and the proximity to Mexico. The 1860 census listed 491 out of 726 Maverick County residents as foreign whites; the countries Germany, Ireland, and Mexico were listed as foreign country criteria.^[9] Tejanos predominantly lived in Lower South Texas after being driven south due to Mexican-American War complications. Mexico did not have slavery and the sentiment against slavery was adopted by Lower South residents. Migrants coming from these countries came from governments that had abolished slavery in the 1830s. Slavery itself was not prevalent in the city due to the proximity to Mexico. The census only listed two slaves, a man and a woman, the former then being removed due to unknown circumstances.^[10] Slavery did not drive the secession vote in Eagle Pass like it did in other cities where the labor depended on it. The cultural backgrounds of the diverse community played a critical role in the political views of the residents of Eagle Pass.

Eagle Pass and Lower South Texas differed from Central and Northern Texas not only in population but in their economy and financial stability as well. The Central and North Texan economy thrived on cotton and slave labor, even using slavery as a display of wealth. The wealthy families in the North and Central region cared for the “institution of slavery itself and the wealth tied up in it.”^[11] Slavery was tied to the Texan identity in not just economic gain but social hierarchy, which they thought could only be protected by the Confederacy. While cotton was king in the majority of the South, it was not king in Lower South Texas. The economy in the Lower South depended on cattle, horses, corn, and commerce from the Brownsville trade port that was supported by the labor of campesinos and peones.^[12] Lower South Texas, which had few slaves, sought border security in the form of military presence from the threats of Mexico and Natives to protect their commerce. Differences in commerce guided politics as all regions sought to preserve their lifestyle. The majority of Texas joined the Confederacy to preserve slavery but for Eagle Pass it meant border security.

Border security drove politics and decisions for the Lower South more so than financial stability. Cities like Eagle Pass depended on military presence to safeguard the residents from neighborly threats. Following the “withdrawal of the U.S. troops… the whole country, from the Gulf coast… to Eagle Pass, appeared to be now ravaged by the Lipans, and perhaps other tribes.”^[13] The start of the war changed the ranching landscape of Eagle Pass and left it barren while waiting on aid from the Confederacy. Eagle Pass also had to defend itself from Mexico, who saw the political dissonance as an opportunity to attack and claim the Rio Grande Valley for themselves. Confederates criticized this movement from Mexico as an “opportunity to accomplish their design of entirely destroying the Texan settlements on the Rio Grande.”^[14] Confederates feared fighting a double front war, which made securing the frontier a priority. The southern border and the safety of the cities populating it became a main concern for Texan Confederate leaders who wanted to focus their war efforts on clearing a trade passage in Mississippi.

The Confederate need to protect the frontier became dire after Union forces claimed Brownsville in November 1863 and had trade rerouted to Eagle Pass and Laredo. A Confederate company led by Tejano Adrian J. Vidal “had mutinied and with the help of Unionist and renegades” claimed the trade hub of Brownsville for the Union.^[15] Eagle Pass did not supply the Confederacy with soldiers prior to the attack on Brownsville due to the difference in political values. Only 5 men had mustered into the Confederate Army as privates, but 40 men mustered in 1864 following the attack on Brownsville.^[16] With the Union advancement becoming a reality, men rose up to defend their city and commercial goods from the destruction Union forces would bring, as they would treat all the people in the South as Confederates. Captain Giddings, who mustered forty men from Eagle Pass, spent a considerable amount of time patrolling the Rio Grande. The captain and his company arrived in Eagle Pass on February 6, 1864, where they constantly marched while “watching the movements of Renegades.”^[17] Union forces and Confederate deserters labeled as Renegades had gathered on the opposite side of the Rio Grande in Piedras Negras, Coahuila. With the loss of Brownsville, Confederates now faced Union forces grouping across Eagle Pass. The imminent threat of Union forces in Texas sent the Confederate forces into a frenzy in attempts to prevent further advancement.

To control the border situation, strict policies on trade passed to prevent further losses to the Confederate States. The blockade imposed by the North would cause the South to starve, as they were rich in cotton but not food. On January 22, 1864, Lower South Texas’ economy of cattle would be used to feed the Confederate Army and South under Special Order No. 8, which prohibited “droves of cattle, hogs, sheep, or subsistence shores of any River to cross to the other bank of the Rio Grande…property [would] be confiscated should they attempt to.”^[18] Citizens faced consequences for making any sales of personal gain, although ranching had been their livelihood. Cotton was also crucial to provide income to the Confederacy by selling it in Mexico, with efforts to control the cotton trade beginning in 1863. General John Bankhead Magruder, who oversaw the cotton trade, sent out orders in March to “impress to obtain cotton…to carry out his Order Number 28…to cause the importation of supplies for the army.”^[19] Impression of property gave citizens the option of willingly giving a part of their goods to the Confederacy or a complete seizure of goods should they oppose. Cotton was king more now than ever, as Confederate money held little value, and only cotton could buy much-needed supplies for the army. These strict orders placed stress on the community, who could no longer sell their goods for personal interest while creating economic benefit for the men dedicated to trading with the government.

Trade grew exponentially in Eagle Pass due to rerouted trade and safe passages under Confederate control. Eagle Pass was overrun with cartmen and traders moving product to and from Mexico who brought medicine and munitions but drained many supplies, corn being one of them. Colonel Benavides notified Commanding Colonel John S. “RIP” Ford of his plan to remain at Fort Duncan until “the moment that the cotton is removed from this place” and requested “to send corn to this post” as there was none in Eagle Pass or Mexico.^[20] While business was prospering for businessmen, sources were being depleted. The cotton trade itself had certified commissioners from the Cotton Bureau that transported cotton to Eagle Pass and Laredo. From there, it moved to Mexico until reaching the coast where British and French envoys purchased the goods in exchange for munitions. The foreign envoys made sure to only purchase through Mexico as they were a neutral country, and they did not want to declare for the Confederacy. Trade was prosperous for a select few who made Eagle Pass their home such as John Twohig who “used the army’s presence to increase his personal capital.”^[21] However, tensions grew due to uneven wealth distribution and unfair seizure of goods.

Distrust towards the Eagle Pass community and Tejanos rose as the Civil War waged on. Commanding Colonel Ford had no patience for disloyalty, and Eagle Pass residents who openly opposed the Confederacy had not earned his favor. On January 28, 1864, Ford ordered the arrest and confinement as a traitor and spy of anyone who should refuse his order to supply Fort Duncan’s new captain.^[22] Due to rising tension, Ford anticipated pushback to the surrender of the scarce supplies for the sake of a new captain. His distrust was not entirely baseless, as desertion rates in the Lower South were high. On February 13, 1864, Captain Santos Benavides informed Ford of “a number of deserters from our Army…well-armed and mounted” and stressed that once “cotton [was] removed from this place…there [would] be no further danger from the Renegades.”^[23] The renegades Benavides referred to were the Union forces that kept encroaching and amassing numbers near Eagle Pass and Laredo. The same cotton that the Southern Cause relied on was becoming an issue for Eagle Pass and Lower South Texas. Tensions in the community increased as the Civil War progressed and further impressed the resources of residents.

Threats from Union forces increased in 1864 as Union companies gathered in Mexico and Brownsville. Union troops grew bolder and more restless as they amassed soldiers across the Rio Grande in Mexico. On February 15, Fort Duncan was notified via spy of an incoming attack declared by renegades to be 300 men strong with the intended purpose of cleaning up the Confederates and taking all the cotton being housed in the city. ^[24] The amassed cotton waiting to be traded across the river garnered the unwanted attention of the Union to the trade point that was Eagle Pass. These advancements and threats came true in an attack that endangered the residents. On July 8, a soldier notified Ford of an attack that had occurred in Eagle Pass in which the residents had to defend themselves and their homes, using cotton bales as barricades due to lack of resources, against Union forces that had come in the night.^[25] The wealth being amassed and traversing through the city was becoming dangerous due to the importance it held. Attacks were becoming more frequent and now causing damage to the residents with successful attacks on the city.

While commerce presented traders and cartmen with the perfect opportunity to expand their business, the workers saw no gain from their sales. As Special Orders mandated all cattle not be sold in Mexico and cotton not be sold for personal gain, families who made a living from farm work were hurt the most. On May 6, a 52-year-old man was arrested after selling bales of cotton in Mexico to provide for his family, who relied on him after his sons and son-in-law had left to serve in the Confederate army.^[26] Families located further from the city were not enjoying the same economic opportunities as those who focused on the trade of cotton. The lack of money and basic commodities such as clothes and food impacted even the soldiers. On July 12, Ford notified Captain E.P. Turner of migration from Eagle Pass consisted of people he deemed disloyal and timid leaving with all the property they could carry.^[27] The restrictions of trade enacted by Magruder, paired with the blockade, were causing residents to leave for Mexico; the neutrality of the country seemed promising for fugitives escaping the effect of war. Mexico welcomed the fugitives as constant crossing was normal before the war and both Eagle Pass and Piedras Negras had family on either side. As trade continued enriching a select few, the citizens saw themselves in the harsh reality of poverty and desperation.

In the struggle for Eagle Pass and the cotton trade, there were some who saw the southern frontier as a pointless battle. As all the key battles occurred in the Eastern and Western theaters, some soldiers who did want action considered their time wasted in Texas. In a letter to John S. Ford, a soldier, stated regarding Eagle Pass that “there never [had] been any danger in this place.”^[28] The matter of overseeing the sale of cotton bales seemed trivial to a young man who expected more action. The soldier believed Benavides to be friends with Mexican forces and saw no possible threat from the South. Ford did not share his sentiment at all as one of the strongest believers in Eagle Pass. Ford always kept an eye on the Lower South and Eagle Pass, ordering to “contest every inch of ground stubbornly” and declared he was “determined to hold Eagle Pass.”^[29] To Ford, who had been the commanding colonel since the beginning, losing Eagle Pass meant losing the war, as a southern front would destroy the already weakened Confederacy. Even in the lack of military action, the importance of Eagle Pass as a supplier for the Confederate States cannot be denied.

The Confederacy was defeated by the Union and marked the end of the war with the surrender of Lee, yet Texas was the last to surrender. Eagle Pass and its established relations with Piedras Negras provided Confederates with the perfect conditions to run away. Generals Kirby Smith and Joseph O. Shelby crossed with 250 men into Mexico, with the intention of joining Imperialistas, but were stopped by Juarista Piedras Negras officials, who disarmed and reported them to Eagle Pass.^[30] Juarista forces were believed to be working with Union forces as Secretary of State William Seward supported Benito Juarez, the leader of the Juaristas. Eagle Pass and Piedras Negras surfaced as allies from the Civil War with newfound camaraderie, their transboundary interdependence linking them together. The reclaiming of Eagle Pass by Union soldiers saw the return of residents who had fled from the war. Union forces were ordered to permanently occupy the city and had refugees run into their line every day along with the eventual cooperation of the Confederate Texas Cavalry.^[31] The residents of Eagle Pass who were subjected to Confederate rule could finally rejoice in seeing their city back under the safety of the Union. The final skirmish made Eagle Pass into a city with conflicting leaders and made it both a sign of Confederate nationalism and Union strength.

Eagle Pass faced hardships after the U.S. Army removed their forces and then major trade growth under the Confederacy. A return to daily activities did not occur until Union forces claimed the city. The city remained relevant in trade with the building of a railroad facilitating freight trade between Mexico and the United States. Fort Duncan also saw action one more time during World War II when it was used as training grounds. The city emerged from the war as an international trade hub and continued its Civil War transboundary relations with Mexico seeing 313,144 crossings in April 2025.^[32] More recently, relations have become rocky with Mexico, who was once seen as a friend even in their neutrality, due to the same border concerns that plagued residents during the Civil War.

[1] Jerry D. Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue & Gray (Austin: State House Press, 2000), 7.

[2] Clayton E. Jewett, Texas in the Confederacy: An Experiment in Nation Building (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2002), 28.

[3] Fredericka Meiners, “The Texas Border Cotton Trade, 1862-1863.” Civil War History 23, no. 4 (1977) , 306.

[4] Alfred Jackson Hanna and Kathryn Abbey Hanna, Napoleon III and Mexico; American Triumph over Monarchy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 155.

[5] “Texas Secession Referendum, 1861,” n.d., https://votearchive.com/tx-sec-ref-1861/.

[6] Northern border counties from Montague to Lamar had uneasy tensions with Oklahoma who was an Indian Territory at the time while southern frontier towns faced attacks from Natives and Mexican encroachment.

[7] Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue and, 12; Pronunciamiento - pronouncement or proclamation.

[8] Texas State Historical Association, “Maverick County,” n.d., https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/maverick-county.

[9] U.S. Census Bureau “State of Texas.” In Population of the United States in 1860, 472-491. 1860

[10] Ibid.

[11] Jewett, Texas in the Confederacy.

[12]Allan C. Jones, Texas Roots: Agriculture and Rural Life before the Civil War (Texas A&M University Press, 2005); Campesinos and peones- peasants and laborers.

[13] C. Dunham, The Burlington Weekly Hawk-eye. (Burlington [Iowa]) April 13, 1861

[14] J.A. Cowardin. The Daily Dispatch. (Richmond [Va.]) October 08, 1861

[15] Thompson, Vaqueros in Blue and, 73.

[16] “Muster Roll for Company C, Battalion of Texas Cavalry,” February 28, 1864, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[17] “Muster Roll for Captain Giddings Cavalry,” January 9, 1864, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[18]John S. Ford to Santos Benavides, January 22, 1864, tcm94.1.0298, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[19] Meiners, “The Texas Border Cotton Trade,” 298.

[20] Santos Benavides to John S. Ford, February 13, 1864, tcm94.1.0304, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx; John S. Ford earned the nickname “RIP” from writing “rest in peace” after his signature in every report on men killed in action during the Mexican-American War.

[21] Cecily N. Zander, The Army Under Fire: The Politics of Antimilitarism in the Civil War Era, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2024), 30.

[22] John S. Ford to Eagle Pass, January 28, 1864, tcm94.1.0171, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[23] Santos Benavides to John S. Ford, February 13, 1864, tcm94.1.0304, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[24] John S. Ford to Captain Turner, February 15, 1864, tcm94.1.0922, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[25] Dan B. Givens to John S. Ford, July 8, 1864, tcm.94.1.0105, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[26] Martin Neel to John S. Ford, May 6, 1864, tcm94.1.0178, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[27] John S. Ford to Captain Turner, July 12, 1864, tcm94.1. 921.a, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[28] Jackson to John S. Ford, February 1, 1864, tcm94.1.0933, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[29] John S. Ford to Eagle Pass, January 24, 1864, tcm94.1.0944, box 1, The Texas Confederate Museum Collection, Haley Memorial Library and History Center, Midland, Tx.

[30] J.E. Britton. “The Tri-Weekly News” (Winnsboro, S.C.) August 08, 1865.

[31] R.A. Cassidy. “The Soldiers’ Journal” (Rendezvous of Distribution, Va.), April 20, 1864.

[32] National Traffic Report, April 2025 (Eagle Pass, Tx: Eagle Pass Traffic Department, 2025)