The Civilian Conservation Corps in Texas State Parks

Education During the Great Depression

By Miranda Adams

The Civilian Conservation Corps was a New Deal program established by Franklin D. Roosevelt during the Great Depression.^[1] It employed single men, aged 18-25, in natural resource conservation projects across America - urban and rural alike. Each six-month term of employment provided the men with housing, food, recreation, education, leisure, and, most of all, a paycheck. A monthly stipend of $30 was allotted to each enrollee, with $25 sent home to his family and $5 given to the enrollee himself.^[2]

Throughout his life, FDR had harbored an interest in conservation. On April 1, 1931, he emphatically stated, “The green slopes of our forested hills lured our first settlers and furnished them the materials of a happy life. They and their descendants were a little careless with that asset.”^[3] Once FDR was seated in the White House, he quickly began pushing the CCC through the legislative process. FDR, officially seated in the presidential office on March 4^th, was diligently working on the CCC by March 9th. On March 31, 1933, the President’s “pet” was accepted by Congress and signed into law.^[4] The program became, according to New Deal historian Neil Maher, the face of the New Deal and a recipient of much popularity.^[5]

Twenty-nine Texas State Parks were impacted by the CCC, leaving a lasting legacy on Texas recreation.^[6] Texas State Parks take great pride in the CCC’s involvement, some even selling CCC merchandise.^[7] Not only can visitors of Texas State Parks visit the exemplary projects the CCC built - such as Bastrop’s refectory - they can also find interpretive signage explaining the history of the CCC.^[8] However, the signage focuses heavily on the physical products of the enrollees, information on any other topic is very limited.^[9] This paper will examine the educational program implemented by the CCC in Texas State Parks. Through academic and vocational courses, the CCC’s educational program within Texas State Parks proved to be effective, both academically and economically.

Education in Texas prior to the Great Depression can be regarded as limited. Despite housing a couple major cities, the state remained largely rural, with its economy centered around industries such as oil and agriculture. Following an economic bombshell – the discovery of Spindletop in 1901 – some funding was allocated to the education system.^[10]  However, challenges persisted. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, “… [I]n the late 19^th century and early 20^th century, illiteracy was very common [in the United States].”^[11] In the southern states during the 1920’s, an average of 20.3% of the population over ten years old was illiterate.^[12] In response, Texas passed legislation during the 1920’s to improve its educational system but progress remained slow.

In terms of higher education, from 1929-30, 12% of Americans were enrolled in college.^[13] The average cost for nine months of college education in Texas was $400.^[14] On average, Texas men were earning ¢37.2 for an hour of work and working 60-hour weeks.^[15] This would equal a monthly wage of $89.28, not including taxes or other necessary deductions. Therefore, nine months of college would require five months of pay, without factoring in the expenses of housing, food, taxes, and debts.

When the Great Depression hit, unemployment soared - with an average of 25% of Americans without a job. In Texas, unemployment peaked in Dallas in 1934, with 20,000 Texans out of work in that singular city. Furthermore, one National Park Service historian noted that unemployment rates were higher among young men than in other demographics, leaving them without employment opportunities or education.^[16]

This paper includes research mined from various State Parks - Abilene, Garner, Davis Mountains, Goliad, Huntsville, Bastrop-Buescher, Palo Duro Canyon, Tyler, Palmetto, and Longhorn Cavern – however, most of the statistical information used in this paper was taken from six Parks in particular.^[17]

First is Abilene State Park.^[18] Located in Taylor County, the land was donated to the State Parks Board in 1933 and company 1823V began their work at the site, SP-26.^[19] The “V” in the company number indicates the company was composed of World War One veterans. Next is Garner State Park.^[20] Company 879 worked at this location from 1935 to 1941, identified as SP-42. Next, Davis Mountains State Park, located in Jeff Davis County, was established in 1933.^[21] Company 879 arrived in 1933, identifiable as SP-4. Bastrop-Buescher State Park Complex is located in Bastrop County. Companies 1805 and 1811 worked at these sites, identified as SP-21 and SP-22. The refectory built at Bastrop remains to be one of the most well-known CCC projects in Texas.^[22] Huntsville State Park, located in Walker County, had its land donated to the State Parks Board in the early 1930s and Company 1827’s work began in 1933 and lasted until 1937.^[23] Lastly, Goliad State Park houses Mission Espíritu Santo, a Spanish mission from the eighteenth century.^[24] The CCC arrived in Goliad County in 1935 to restore the mission, utilizing the efforts of Company 3822V, another veteran Company.

The beginning of the CCC’s educational program was understated. At the time of the CCC’s emergence in 1933, it didn’t have a formal education program. However, “... [S]uggestions that some type of educational activities become part of the operation quickly appeared.”^[25] Soon enough, the educational program was formalized, and by 1935 the program was flourishing, according to historian Calvin Gower.^[26] The goals of the CCC program were, according to the Director of CCC Camp Education, “The removal of illiteracy, the correction of common school deficiencies, training on work projects, vocational instruction, cultural and general education, vocational and leisure-time training, character and citizenship development, and job placement.”^[27]

To begin, an overview of the CCC’s educational program is needed. Classes were held four evenings a week – Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday – generally occurring from 6pm to 9pm.^[28] The classes were held either within the camp or at a local school.^[29] The courses offered varied from Park to Park, sometimes as academically-challenging as business arithmetic and sometimes as entertaining as a glee club.^[30] Finding an equilibrium between the extremes; arithmetic, English, Spanish, and forestry appear most commonly in the offered curriculum in all of the educational programs. After comparing six of the State Parks’ educational reports, arithmetic garnered the most interest, with forestry, spelling, Spanish, and music following close behind.^[31] When the enrollees weren’t in class, but wanted to engage in scholarly pursuits, they would visit the on-site libraries built by the men themselves.

The first of the CCC’s objectives, the eradication of illiteracy, was consistently achieved by the Texas State Parks’ educational programs.^[32] Garner held literacy courses alongside their elementary and high school curriculum. In 1940, an educational report triumphantly declared that “Illiteracy has been eliminated.”^[33] Similarly, Huntsville had five illiterates and offered two literacy courses in 1935.^[34] Lastly, according to a report from 1935, Goliad had three enrollees who could not read or write. These men were, “... taking part in the school program.”^[35] This must have been a successful endeavor because by 1936, “Men have been taught to read and write…” according to the camp newsletter.^[36] In total, the CCC helped over 57,000 men learn how to read and write.^[37]

In addition to eradicating illiteracy the CCC also desired to facilitate the continuation of enrollee education. The average education level of enrollees, upon entering the CCC, plateaued at the 8th grade.^[38] Abilene’s educational advisor noted, “… [M]any have not even completed the elementary grades…”^[39] To encourage an increase in education, the CCC met the enrollees where they were; literacy courses for illiterates, elementary courses for those who hadn’t completed elementary school, high school courses for the majority who hadn’t yet completed it, and college courses for those interested in starting or continuing higher education.

This endeavor proved itself successful, and a small example of the fruition of the CCC’s education program is seen in Garner, according to Garner’s Educational Advisor, “… [T]welve Educational Certificates have been issued company members during the past six months.”^[40] This is only a small glimpse into the number of diplomas received during the duration of the CCC.

Furthermore, the CCC successfully planted the seeds of higher education within the minds of the enrollees. One Bastrop enrollee’s diary, a Mr. Chester Nagel, shows evidence that he was planning on college post-CCC-term and, not only that, but was considering academically renowned establishments. For example, the University of Texas and Harvard are two of the colleges listed. This demonstrates how the CCC facilitated a passion for learning which may not have been accessible prior to enrollment in the CCC’s educational program.^[41] If the enrollee wasn’t interested in higher education by the time they left the CCC, they were able to emerge from their time serving in the CCC with better odds at gaining employment - due to having received their high school – or elementary – education. This was supplemented by the vocational courses offered alongside the academic ones, and on-the-job training. Most Parks offered upward of five vocational courses, with typing courses appearing many times throughout the Parks.^[42]

In addition to gaining employment opportunities outside of the CCC, many enrollees slipped easily into federal jobs. Some rose in the ranks of the CCC, while a majority transitioned immediately out of the CCC to the military. According to Maher, “Men in the CCC [went] directly to the military.”^[43] Since the Army ran the camps, the enrollees were practically trained for military service the entire duration of their term. This was a benefit to America, considering that the CCC officially ended due to the coming of World War Two. Despite the difficult circumstances, the CCC men had an advantage moving into the military due to their prior experience with the Army.^[44]

The CCC benefitted the American economy in more ways than just providing military personnel. As mentioned, $25 of the enrollees’ paycheck was sent home to his family every month. This effectively boosted the incomes of many impoverished families and continued the circulation of money. Another way the CCC facilitated the circulation of the American dollar was through the employment of CCC staff. Each camp employed around ten staff to oversee the daily routine, with teachers being an additional factor. The CCC allied with other New Deal programs, the Federal Emergency Relief Agency (FERA) and Works Progress Administration (WPA), and employed them as teachers at CCC camps.^[45]

Additionally, the communities surrounding the CCC camps benefited economically. Despite their initial reservations, due to negative connotations of the CCC’s enrollee demographic, most communities loved having the camps near them. This was because, according to Maher, “There was an economic relationship that was forged between the camps and the communities. On average each camp spent about five thousand dollars in the local communities…”^[46] Part of this money was spent on things like hiring local teachers or buying school supplies for the educational program. These spending habits boosted the economies within these towns, both rural and urban.

Overall, the CCC’s educational program in Texas State Parks left a substantial impact on the state and those who inhabited it, especially those enrollees who participated in the CCC. Interpretive signage from the Davis Mountains State Park quotes Delores Baeza, “It [the CCC] helped me a lot, I know … I started learning quite a few things, then I started going farther after I got out.”^[47] The CCC’s educational program left America with a desire to improve their education system, some even advocating for a permanently established CCC program, “Various articles in 1940 and 1941 illustrated even more clearly the viewpoint that a basic change in American education was needed, with the CCC as a permanent adjunct of the system.”^[48]

In conclusion, the CCC’s educational programs in Texas State Parks exemplifies the broader achievements of the New Deal - transformative solutions to problems during a national crisis. While conservation work and infrastructure may have been the CCC’s most visible achievements, the educational programs left behind an equally profound legacy. Through literacy courses, vocational training, and academic classes, the CCC empowered young men to overcome barriers to success - fostering both personal growth and economic stability. The educational programs not only opened doors for enrollees, guiding them toward employment, higher education, or military service, but also contributed to the broader economy through local spending and job creation.

Figure 1.^[49]

Park	Company	Identifier	Date Est.	Location
Abilene	1823V*	SP-26	1933	Buffalo Gap
Garner	879	SP-42	1935	Uvalde
Davis Mtns.	879	SP-4	1933	Marfa
Goliad	3822V	SP-42	1935	Goliad
Bastrop-Buescher	1805 & 1811	SP-21 & SP-22	1933 & 1934	Bastrop
Huntsville	1827	P-74	1934	Huntsville

 

Figure 2.

Park	Course	Avg. Attendance	Citation
Abilene	Forestry	47	Carl B. Wilson and CCC Documents, “Abilene Education Report” (NARA Denver, 1934).
	Music	30
	Spelling	21
	Arithmetic	21
Garner	Arithmetic	14	CCC Garner. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, 1938.
	English	14
	Geography	14
	Forestry	11
Davis Mtns.	Arithmetic	13	CCC Davis Mountains. “Extract from Monthly Report.” NARA Denver, February 2, 1935.
	English	12
	Reading	11
	Spelling	11
Goliad	ES Courses*	18	CCC Goliad. “What Is Education?” The Goliad Veteran, November 1936, 7.
	Spanish	14
	Music	12
	Dramatics	8
Huntsville	Spelling	18	CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935.
	Bus. Arithmetic	16
	Spanish	16
	Forestry	16
Bastrop	Rock Masonry	68	Brewster, Royce E., and CCC Bastrop. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, June 1935.
	Arithmetic	51
	Civil Service	51
	Bus. Arithmetic	51

 

Figure 3.

Park	Location of Classes	Citation
Abilene	“Classes meet in the Mess Hall, Officer’s Mess, and in the barracks. Music is taught in the school building of Buffalo Gap.”	Carl B. Wilson and CCC Documents, “Abilene Education Report” (NARA Denver, 1934).
Davis Mtns.	Used their own facilities.	CCC Davis Mountains. “Extract from Monthly Report.” NARA Denver, February 2, 1935.
Goliad	“… We obtained use of the public school building 300 yards north of camp.”	Keane, Daniel, and CCC Goliad. “Memorandum for Mr. J.C. Billups.” NARA Denver, October 10, 1935.
Huntsville	“Two classes are held at the college.”	CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935.
Bastrop	“The major part of our High School and Elementary school program is held in Bastrop High School Building from 6:30 to 9:30pm.”	Brewster, Royce E., and CCC Bastrop. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, June 1935.

 

Figure 4.^[50]

	Number of Years in School
Park	0	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15
D. Mtn.	0	8	6	22	14	14	18	36	36	26	19	33	3	2	N/A	N/A
Hunts.	0	2	2	6	9	16	20	25	46	24	11	12	6	6	2	3
Bas./Bues.	2	2	2	4	13	18	28	32	27	21	22	27	4	3	1	0

 

Figure 5.^[51]

Park	Vocational Course	#
Goliad	Carpentry	Seven
	Building and Estimates
	Cabinet Making
	Lathe Work
	Refrigeration & Air Conditioning
	Farm Management
	Typewriting
Huntsville	Agriculture	Five
	Manual Training
	Bookkeeping
	Typing
	Shorthand
Davis Mtns.	Radio	Ten
	Civil Service
	Art
	Bookkeeping
	Typing
	Shorthand
	Scouting
	Speakers and Writing
	Astronomy
	First aid
Garner	Bookkeeping	Twelve
	Business English
	Typing
	Shorthand
	Leader Training
	Photography
	Leatherwork
	First aid
	Cooking
	Mechanics
	Truck Driving
	Woodworking

 

^[1] The Civilian Conservation Corps will be referred to as the CCC and Franklin D. Roosevelt will be referred to as FDR for the remainder of the paper.

^[2] David M. Kennedy, The American People in the Great Depression: Freedom from Fear Part One, vol. 9 (Oxford University, 1999). Page 144.

^[3] Franklin D. Roosevelt, “SPEECH by ROOSEVELT to the CITIZENS of the STATE of NEW YORK, April 1, 1931,” Press Release (April 19, 1931), https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/cany/fdr/part1.htm.

^[4] Ibid.

^[5] Neil Maher and Ben Sawyer, “The Original Green New Deal: The Civilian Conservation Corps W/ Neil Maher (#274) | The Road to Now,” ed. Gary Fletcher, The Road to Now, May 29, 2023, https://theroadtonow.com/episodes/the-original-green-new-deal-the-civilian-conservation-corps-w-neil-maher-274/. 2:16

^[6] James Steely, The Civilian Conservation Corps in Texas State Parks (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, 2020).

^[7] Picture 1

^[8] Texas Parks and Wildlife, Postcard, Refectory, Bastrop State Park, 1941, 1941, http://texascccparks.org/archive/bastrop-postcard-56/.

^[9] Pictures 2 and 3.

^[10] Texas State Historical Association, “Texas in the 1920s,” www.tshaonline.org, n.d.,  https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/texas-in-the-1920s.

^[11] National Center for Education Statistics, “National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL),” nces.ed.gov, n.d., https://nces.ed.gov/naal/lit_history.asp#illiteracy.

^[12] National Bureau of Economic Research, “Race and Schooling in the South: A Review of the Evidence,” ed. Robert A. Margo (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990), http://www.nber.org/chapters/c8792. Page 7.

^[13] University of Missouri, “Library Guides: Prices and Wages by Decade: 1930-1939,” Missouri.edu (Libraries, 2009), https://libraryguides.missouri.edu/pricesandwages/1930-1939.

^[14] United States Office of Education, “Pamphlet No. 1,” HathiTrust (Washington, United States: U.S. Government, 1930), page 14. Additionally, TWU’s cost for nine months was $375.

^[15] U.S. Department of Labor and Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Monthly Labor Review,” HaithiTrust (Washington, United States: U.S. Government, 1936), page 943. And Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Monthly Labor Report,” Fraser: Discover Economic History (Washington, United States: United States, October 1933), https://fraser.stlouisfed.org/title/monthly-labor-review-6130/october-1933-608235?page=185. Page 949.

^[16] John C. Paige, The Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Park Service, 1933-1942: An Administrative History (U.S. Department of the Interior, 1985). Page 2.

^[17] Figure 1

^[18] Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, “The History of Abilene State Park,” Texas.gov, 2024.

^[19] Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy, “CCC Camp Lists,” Ccclegacy.org, 2018, https://ccclegacy.org/ccc-camp-lists/. All information on companies and site identifiers can be found at this website.

^[20] Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, “Garner State Park History,” Texas.gov, 2024, https://tpwd.texas.gov/state-parks/garner/history#CCC%20Garner.

^[21] Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, “Davis Mountains State Park,” Texascccparks.org, 2024, http://texascccparks.org/parks/davis-mountains/.

^[22] Texas Parks and Wildlife, Postcard, Refectory, Bastrop State Park, 1941, 1941, http://texascccparks.org/archive/bastrop-postcard-56/.

^[23] Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, “Huntsville State Park Information,” tpwd.texas.gov, n.d., https://tpwd.texas.gov/state-parks/huntsville.

^[24] Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, “Goliad State Park,” Texascccparks.org, 2024, http://texascccparks.org/parks/goliad/.

^[25] Gower, Calvin W. “The Civilian Conservation Corps and American Education: Threat to Local Control?” History of Education Quarterly 7, no. 1 (1967): 59. https://doi.org/10.2307/367233.

^[26] Gower, Calvin W. 61.

^[27] Oxley, Howard W. "CCC Camp education: Guidance and recreational phases." (1938). https://ttu-ir.tdl.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/5a7ba408-cac6-4453-938f-a93f23ff61b6/content. Page 3.

^[28] CCC Palo Duro, Echoes of the Canyon 2 (NARA Denver, November 1935): 8. And CCC Goliad, “What Is Education?,” The Goliad Veteran (NARA Denver, November 1936, 7). And Carl B. Wilson and CCC Documents, “Abilene Education Report” (NARA Denver, 1934).

^[29] Figure 3

^[30] CCC Bastrop, “Educational Activities of Comp. 1805 & 1811,” (NARA Denver, 1935). And CCC Garner, “Monthly Education Report” (NARA Denver, 1938). Glee club means choir club.

^[31] Figure 2

^[32] Maher and Sawyer, 35:24.

^[33] CCC Garner. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, 1938.

^[34] CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935.

^[35] Keane, Daniel, and CCC Goliad. “Memorandum for Mr. J.C. Billups.” NARA Denver, October 10, 1935.

^[36] CCC Goliad. “Company History.” The Goliad Veteran, November 1936, 9.

^[37] Digital Public Library of America, “CCC Enrollees,” Dp.la, 2020, https://dp.la/exhibitions/civilian-conservation-corps/enrollees/education?item=1638.

^[38] Figure 4

^[39] Carl B. Wilson and CCC Documents, “Abilene Education Report” NARA Denver, 1934.

^[40] CCC Garner. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, 1938.

^[41] Nagel, Chester E. Diary. Austin, Texas: CCC Documents (TPWD Headquarters), 1937-38. Page 157. And picture 4.

^[42] Figure 5

^[43] Maher and Sawyer, 31:30.

^[44] Maher and Sawyer, 31:45.

^[45] CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935. And CCC Garner. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, 1938. And CCC Bastrop, “Our Company History,” NARA Denver, n.d.

^[46] Maher and Sawyer, 18:08.

^[47] Picture 6

^[48] Gower, Calvin W. “The Civilian Conservation Corps and American Education: Threat to Local Control?” History of Education Quarterly 7, no. 1 (1967): 64. https://doi.org/10.2307/367233.

^[49] Civilian Conservation Corps Legacy. “CCC Camp Lists.” Ccclegacy.org, 2018. https://ccclegacy.org/ccc-camp-lists/.

^[50] CCC Davis Mountains. “Extract from Monthly Report.” NARA Denver, February 2, 1935.

CCC Bastrop. “Educational Activities of Comp. 1805 & 1811,” NARA Denver, 1935.

CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935.

^[51] CCC Huntsville. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, February 1935.

CCC Garner. “Monthly Education Report.” NARA Denver, 1938.

CCC Davis Mountains. “Extract from Monthly Report.” NARA Denver, February 2, 1935.

CCC Goliad. “What Is Education?” The Goliad Veteran. NARA Denver, November 1936, 7.

Pictures

Picture 1.

Example of CCC merchandise being sold at Longhorn Cavern State Park. Taken by author on 7/23/2024.

Picture 2.

Example of CCC signage from the Davis Mountains State Park. Taken by author on 11/25/24.

Picture 3.

Example of CCC historical marker from Bastrop State Park. Taken by author on 7/2/2024.

Picture 4.

Chester E. Nagel’s diary. From the Texas Parks and Wildlife archives. Taken by author on 11/1/2024.

Picture 5.

Interpretive signage from Davis Mountains State Park. Taken by author on 11/25/2024.