Nineteenth Century Collegiate Secret Societies

Their Roles Within the Female World of Love and Ritual

By Meghan A. Pearce

In Carrol Smith Rosenberg’s publication, “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations Between Women in Nineteenth-Century America”, Rosenberg describes the complex and intense nature of female relationships by analyzing letters and documents from men and women from the 1760s through the 1880s. By discussing the experiences of middle-class white women in America, Rosenberg illuminates various aspects of their relations with one another, including the use of intensely passionate language towards each other, participating in extensive outings and retreats together, and involving these close friends in intimate milestones throughout their own lives. Some of these intimate milestones included supporting their friends before, during, and after the birth of their children, taking pilgrimages to one another's homes in times of major sickness, and even making the effort to try and raise their daughters to continue this practice of female companionship as they came of age; to be friends with one another from one generation to the next. Rosenberg explains where many of these relationships originated and spends a significant amount of time explaining the key role of boarding schools as breeding grounds for many of these female relationships.

Coincidentally, it was also around this time that organized women’s collegiate secret societies began to take form across America. These societies were created with the intent of cultivating lifelong friendships with one another, encouraging passionate “sisterly” bonds with all members, and supporting an organized network of women that would encourage their own daughters to carry on this membership into the next generation. By analyzing the letters of founding members to one another, various chapter documents and publications, and yearbooks from these respective organizations, it is clear that there is a significant connection between women’s collegiate societies and the continuation of the nineteenth-century female world of love and ritual as described by Carroll Smith-Rosenberg.

There is very little scholarship currently available that attempts to expand explicitly on Carroll Smith-Rosenberg’s piece, and no known scholarship connecting her work on the female sphere of love and ritual with women’s collegiate societies. However, the work of historians Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz and Diana B. Turk comes the closest to bridging this gap in their respective publications surrounding women’s collegiate experiences. In her piece, “Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth Century Beginnings to the 1930’s”, Horowitz argues primarily about the architectural designs of women’s college buildings but does briefly address the subject of student life on campus.  A particularly relevant claim she argues surrounds the frequency of expedited friendships made as young collegiate students on campus. This occurrence, as mentioned by Horowitz, was common enough to receive its own casual term within school grounds known as “smashing” amongst young women. Horowitz also briefly mentions a secret literary society, known as the Philaletheis, but this society soon blossomed into a theatrical group fairly soon after its origin. While Horowitz touches briefly on the student’s relations with others, Diana B. Turk takes one step further to explain some of the social intricacies that were inherent within these secret college societies in her publication “Bound by a Mighty Vow.” Turk’s piece strives mostly to provide a detailed synopsis of a few sororities and their general history (Largely Kappa Alpha Theta), their roles on campus over the years, and briefly members' relations over time. While Turk does quickly address member relations, it is important to note that Rosenberg’s argument, specifically regarding the passionate nature of women’s friendships was not explicitly addressed. Additionally, Turk’s publication focuses most intensely on Kappa Alpha Theta’s history as opposed to addressing as many of the existing societies as possible. While her piece does successfully capture 19th-century sorority-related subjects and issues, further inspection into these societies’ women’s relations with one another is still needed to connect Rosenberg’s findings with women’s collegiate secret societies more concretely. It is because of this limited academic conversation on the subject that this paper stands seemingly independent for the time being, but there is always the hope that scholarship to expand on this section of women’s history will be pursued in the future.^[1]

The following collegiate societies have been selected for analysis based on their relevance to the time period that was discussed in Smith-Rosenberg’s piece. In her publication, Rosenberg analyzes the relationships between white American women from the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Therefore, no organizations founded after the 19th century are included in the analysis. The timeline for the creation of these organizations is especially relevant to understanding that they may have contributed to, or are more likely the product of this complicated sphere of women’s relations. Because there were no American women’s collegiate organizations founded in the eighteenth century, the timeline for this discussion will be from the creation of the first society in 1851 known formerly as the Adelphian society to the last society founded within the parameters of Rosenburg’s research, known as Delta Delta Delta (ΔΔΔ) which was founded in 1888. Evidence created by these organizations past the 1880s up until 1914 is still relevant to this analysis despite the extension in time, because the organizations they came from were originally founded within Rosenberg’s time frame, and the evidence presented had originated from dates that are still generally considered to be within the nineteenth century.

The societies that are relevant to this discussion did not all start as explicit social organizations, but originated as secret literary societies where new membership was a highly coveted and intensely deliberated discussion among initiated and alumni members. These founding organizations originally came together out of various women’s passion for consuming and producing literature. As will soon be seen, there is a change from referring to these societies as literary organizations, and a transition into using Greek letters instead. It is important to note that before the introduction of Greek letters and the term “sorority,” many organizations commonly referred to themselves as secret societies and/or literary societies. Because of this, the term “sorority” is not always applicable, and should be avoided when referencing specific societies before they adopted this term. Several of these organizations were founded as the trend of selecting Greek letters to represent each society was becoming more popular, so because of this, Greek letters have been included in parentheses for easier identification.  As members of these pioneering literary societies, the young women often wrote their own poems, songs, and contributions to their group’s official yearbook. It is from these many pieces of literature that connections can be made between the intricacies of these young women’s relations to the claims that Rosenberg makes surrounding 19th-century women’s relationships.

One aspect of female friendship that Rosenberg clearly demonstrates is the intimate involvement that women had in each other's lives at the time. Involvement included each other's physical presence in a wide range of life milestones, such as times of great sickness, and the births of each other's children. Rosenberg specifically characterizes this trend as evidence of  “supportive networks,” and explains the importance of these networks in these women's lives, “These supportive networks were institutionalized in social conventions or rituals which accompanied virtually every important event in a woman's life, from birth to death.”.^[2] Rosenberg mentions the prominence of friendship networks twice, once in reference to the role of the mother’s network of friends and relatives, and then again in reference to the development of the daughter’s own network.^[3] Which, according to Rosenberg, was most commonly created by the girl's experiences at her own respective boarding school.^[4] Similarly, there is evidence that lies within these collegiate societies that shows the sharing of intimate life milestones with her fellow sisters, society mothers, and alumni as examples of relying on these new support networks in times of increased need. For example, when these young society women became mothers it was not uncommon for them to bring their infants to meetings up until the time that their child learned to talk. This practice is mentioned explicitly in Pi Beta Phi’s (Formerly I.C. Sorosis) monthly publication “The Arrow” by Flora McGan when she wrote about her chapter’s (Iowa Eta) updates for the year, “Two of our oldest members Mrs. Annie Whitham and Mrs. Maggie Vorhies each presented their husbands with a fine baby boy within the last week. They will probably be regular attendants at all I.C. gatherings until they learn to talk, when the cry will be: The babies must go.”^[5] Further evidence can be seen in an image which is featured in a Kappa Kappa Gamma scrapbook from around 1884-1894 from their Beta Tau chapter. The image is of Beta Tau’s member Hattie Bladecslee Wallace’s two young children and was featured in the foremost portion of the scrapbook.^[6] The sharing of life milestones and the support that was systematically expressed by organizations to young mothers does further support the argument that these societies created intimate and lifelong social networks that resemble the ones as described by Rosenberg.

Involvement from the mothers of active members was also a common reoccurrence, and continues to support the presence of generational involvement. Their involvement resembled a system entailing a passing of knowledge, from one class to the next. This system reflects a form of “apprenticeship” as described by Rosenberg.^[7] According to Rosenberg, apprenticeship was a system that entailed careful training on all things related to becoming a mature woman, which at the time meant becoming knowledgeable in the areas of “wifery and motherhood”.^[8] Mothers and older female relatives would keep a careful eye on these young women and would remain a consistent source of aid and information.^[9] Featured in Gamma Phi Beta’s (ΓΦΒ) monthly publication from June 1903 is evidence of this kind of involvement from their Beta chapter describing the role of the participating mothers in a chapter event, “The Gamma Phi Mothers served dainty refreshments and decorated the rooms in the national colors.” Featured in this same excerpt is the announcement of a grand wedding that is being planned for one of the young members, and how they plan on asking for the mature assistance of their society mothers to help organize.^[10] Appreciation of these mothers’ consistent involvement is also seen by evidence of chapters arranging parties and honorary events for their mothers, such as a “mothers tea” that was an annual tradition for the Delta chapter of ΓΦΒ.^[11] This system of apprenticeship can be seen in the aid provided by the mothers of the society as the young members planned to celebrate their fellow members' wedding. Similarly, the young women also participated in this program of apprenticeship by seeking out the aid of the chapter mothers and then organizing a celebratory tea to show their genuine appreciation for the mother’s mentorship and guidance afterward.

Further documentation that continues to support the presence of generational involvement can be seen in evidence that shows the consistent participation of alumni in their organizations after graduation and corroborates the maintenance of a vast national network of women who continuously communicated with one another for decades. Featured in Kappa Kappa Gamma’s (ΚΚΓ) scrapbook covering publications mentioned in “The Golden Key”  is a short story detailing one sister’s newly refreshed perspective regarding her organization’s inherent lifelong commitment long after their college years had passed, “The Kappa from Iowa who has seen another Kappa from California clasp hands heartily with a third from Boston whom she has never set eyes on before, but who returns the greeting with equal warmth, has a new idea of what it means to be a Kappa. She knows that it is not for four years but for life. The evidence that Kappas really are sisters, and sisters who are willing and eager to acknowledge their sisterhood, must strengthen loyalty and impress the conviction that there is a deep and true meaning behind the college circle.”.^[12] There is passionate language in the last two sentences that support the argument that these societies continued to be an integral part of their members' lives, even in situations where they meet other initiated members for the first time. That being said, it is relevant to mention that not only is the society explicitly credited in this quotation for facilitating this life-long commitment, but is also credited for the creation of a lifelong pursuit of sisterhood which originated from their collegiate society participation.

Further evidence that supports these lifelong social networks can also be seen through letters written by alumni members. Alumni would communicate with one another and with their own chapters for a variety of reasons. Some wanted to check in and reminisce on the golden days, others wanted to keep their friends informed about various developments in their lives, and some simply wanted to discuss society business. Regardless of individual topics, the point is that these organizations created a mailing list filled with sisters to choose from to communicate about life’s inherent ups and downs. Women such as Kate Elizabeth Hogoboom Gilbert, who was a founding member of Alpha Phi, wrote to her chapter after graduation to share wisdom, recount fond memories with sisters, and share with younger members how it was their original intention while creating the society to turn it into a vast national organization of women.^[13] In her letter she wrote, “For we began calling ourselves a national organization immediately, and founded better than we knew; although we dreamed of other chapters in the distant future, what would have been our amazement could we have been gifted with prophetic ken and have beheld the wonders of the present, with its Alpha Chapter House, its eight strong Chapters, and all the glory and far-reaching influence that appertain to each!”.^[14] Her words indicate a vast network of women spanned across a variety of geographical locations, and lifetime members whose ages range from collegiate age all the way up to her own age at the time which was 78 years of age. Just by writing this letter to her chapter, she demonstrates the existence of correspondence between older and younger members. Octavia Osgood Andrew Rush was also a founding member of her own organization, the Adelpheans, and similar to the actions of Gilbert also wrote to one of the chapters concerning the uncertain future of a particular chapter in 1913.^[15] In her letter to the Delta chapter, she writes about not only how she keeps in touch with the chapter, but does so through her granddaughters who were initiated members at the time. Her statements, while generally written in concern for the future of one of their chapters, also support the existence of a network of society women, and the presence of lifelong, and legacy membership. These two women, Octavia Osgood Andrew Rush and Kate Elizabeth Hogoboom Gilbert were part of two separate organizations and cannot be definitively traced to ever having met or spoken with one another. According to present evidence, they had membership in completely separate societies, yet both women showed the same dedication and concern to their organizations long into adulthood. Their evidence of continued correspondence supports the presence of alumni involvement and their role in maintaining a lifelong social network.

In Rosenberg's piece she gives several examples of female friendships that lasted lifetimes to support her argument, such as the relationships of Sarah and Jeannie, and Molly and Helena.^[16] When describing the relationship between Jeannie and Sarah, Rosenberg claims that “Like many other women in this collection of thirty-five families, marriage brought Sarah and Jeannie physical separation; it did not cause emotional distance. Although at first they may have wondered how marriage would affect their relationship, their affection remained unabated throughout their lives, underscored by their loneliness and their desire to be together.”.^[17] Similarly, using the same phrase “throughout their lives”  Rosenberg makes an identical claim regarding the friendship between Molly and Helena, “Gradually, over the years, their initial friendship deepened into a close intimate bond which continued throughout their lives.”.^[18] It is in this respect that there is a clear connection between Rosenberg’s claim surrounding the prominence of these lifelong relationships, and the lifelong friendships that can be seen as a result of participating in one of the active collegiate societies mentioned. By remaining so committed to this system over the course of their lives, there is further evidence to show that the relationships formed while in these collegiate societies remained as permanent installations into these women’s lives long after they graduated. Featured in Kappa Kappa Gamma’s (ΚΚΓ) scrapbook covering publications mentioned in “The Golden Key” is a short story written by an initiated sister who tells about the travels of two young initiated members headed to a convention. In this story is the following quotation, “ One evening a jolly party was admiring the delicate and gorgeous articles at a booth, when a Turkish attendant said to one of the girls before her, “Are you and that lady sisters?” As the two looked at each other in wonder, she added, “You have on pins that are alike.” Then each girl found upon the other the mate to her pin; and explaining briefly to the Turk the reason for the similarity of the jewels, they rejoiced in their sisterhood.”^[19]. This quotation gives a further example of two young society women who continue to involve their fellow initiated peers outside of the college setting. While visiting a convention together they are reminded of where they met and are described as feeling emotions such as “wonder” and “rejoiced” in regard to their sisterhood. Furthermore, within this scrapbook is an excerpt from an unknown sister of ΚΚΓ that comments directly on the continued association with the organization after graduation, and the longevity of the relationships that were formed during their collegiate membership, “Each alumna must answer to her own conscience as to her continued faithfulness. But as far as our observation goes, there are many whose interest in the fraternity remains, whose dearest friends are still those that they found in the chapter circle, – and yet the little key^[20] is not, as it used to be “in the old times,” an invariable ornament of their attire.”^[21] This testimonial evidence from this society’s own members strongly suggests that friendships formed as a result of their membership are similar to the lifelong female companionship argued in Rosenberg’s piece.

This desire and practice of remaining loyal to a fellow female companion (s) throughout each other's lives & various changes can be seen clearly in Rosenberg’s analysis of the grief felt by various women after the death of their beloved friends. In one example that Rosenberg provides, she presents the sentiments felt by Sarah Ripley after the death of her best friend Rachel and captures how she continued to remain loyal to her friend in death, “A generation earlier a young Massachusetts farm woman filled pages of her diary with her grief at the death of her “dearest friend” and transcribed the letters of condolence other women sent her. She marked the anniversary of Rachel’s death each year in her diary, contrasting her faithfulness with that of Rachel’s husband who had soon remarried.”^[22] Like Sarah and Rachel, this presence of lifelong loyalty is present in the hopes expressed in this poem provided by Pi Beta Phi (formerly I.C. Sorosis) and shows their society's widespread desire to remain permanently involved in each other’s lives. The following original poem featured in this publication is credited as being from their Alpha chapter located in Kansas, and contains a hopeful wish to be connected and united with their fellow sisters up until, and even after their own deaths:

“Sisters, may we always stand
Heart to heart and hand in hand;
Let us stand here side by side,
Gliding o’er life’s stormy tide.
When our heads with age bow low,
And our steps are growing slow,
When we cease afar to roam,
May we meet in heaven, our home.”^[23]

These sentiments were recorded by an unknown member of the chapter, and through its lines it suggests a deep desire to remain by her society sister’s side throughout each other's lives. This desire can be seen reflected through the words “Let us stand here side by side, gliding o’er life's stormy tide”. This phrase and the ones following continue to suggest the hope of remaining involved and supportive in her fellow society sisters’ lives through life’s inherent ups and downs, and remaining by one’s side even when they become elderly women. As seen in the final lines of this piece of poetry it states “When we cease to roam, may we meet in heaven, our home.”, suggesting a hope that their friendship not only lasts a lifetime but continues beyond the grave.

It is nearly impossible not to notice the intensely passionate and affectionate language that is used prolifically throughout the primary source letters utilized by Rosenberg. Rosenberg uses the presence of this language as evidence of the intimate nature of devoted female companionship. In her piece, she captures the relationship between Sarah and Jeannie, a pair of young women who wrote frequently to one another to express their passions. In one letter, Jeannie wrote to Sarah, “You are the joy of my life.... I cannot tell you how much happiness you gave me, nor how constantly it is all in my thoughts.... My darling how I long for the time when I shall see you....".^[24] She also captures similar passions in the records of Molly and Helena’s relations, “I wanted so to put my arms round my girl of all the girls in the world and tell her… I love her as wives do love their husbands, as friends who have taken each other for life - and believe in her as I believe in my God.”^[25] This same kind of longing and faithful language is found engrained throughout these women’s collegiate societies' open mottos, all of which were adopted at the time of their organization’s conception. The Adelphean Society, which was founded at Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia exhibited this commitment to one another as part of one of their key values. Their founding motto “We live for each other”,^[26] which was even featured on the foremost page of their annual yearbook in 1899 had unmistakingly declared that dedication to one another was an essential value that was prominent in their organization. Other societies such as Alpha Phi (ΑΦ), Delta Delta Delta (ΔΔΔ), the Philomathean society, and I.C. Sorosis each adopted a motto proclaiming similar values of boundless loyalty to their fellow “sisters”. Listed on the following page are the previously mentioned societies, their respective mottos, and the dates of their founding listed in chronological order:

The Adelphean society (later ΑΔΠ)	“We Live for Each Other.”[27]	Founded 1851
The Philomathean society (later ΦΜ)	“The Faithful Sisters.”[28]	Founded 1852
I.C. Sorosis (later ΠΒΦ)	“Friends and Leaders for Life.”[29]	Founded 1867
Alpha Phi (ΑΦ)	“Union Hand in Hand”[30]	Founded 1872
Delta Delta Delta (ΔΔΔ)	“Let Us Steadfastly Love One Another”[31]	Founded 1888

 

In her publication, Rosenberg mentions briefly how young girls at boarding school would be “adopted” by older girls who would play as pseudo motherly figures and role models for the younger classes to admire as well as emulate.^[32] This same process can be seen in the pledging processes of these collegiate societies. Founded at the same university as the Adelphean Society,  the Philomathean Society emerged just one year later. Originally created as a secret literary society, membership in one of these organizations was highly coveted, and the process of mutual selection between a potential new member and the respective society often caused a plethora of emotions to stir. In their annual yearbook from the year 1900 is a story that was written with the intention to depict what life was like for a Philomathean, and detailed the secrecy and the high emotions that were involved in the pledging process.^[33] Initiated upperclassmen were considered “the girls to be” and were admired by many freshmen for their demeanor and social presence in the school. As these upperclassmen both from the Adelphean society and the Philomathean society sought out potential new members, there were secret interactions between potential new members and initiated members to try and connect more deeply with each new girl and sway her to pledge to a certain society. In the course of describing this story the unknown author, a now initiated member,  writes about these experiences, “She, of all other girls you have met, is a bright particular star. You have worshiped her from a distance and now your foolish little heart flutters as she draws you out of the crowd of girls down the steps and into the moonlight. Then she draws you closer and says, “I want you to be a Philomathean; will you promise me, dear?”.^[34] The quote from the story describing the recruitment of a new member closely resembles this system of an older and much admired schoolmate taking in a younger cohort.  With phrases that project feelings of immense fondness such as “a particular bright start”, “worshiped” and “foolish little heart flutters”, it is clear that this young girl looks up to this confident upperclassman. Subsequently, the phrase “she draws you out of the crowd of girls” indicates the presence of careful selection initiated by the older classmate, while her final action “Then she draws you closer and says, “I want you to be a Philomathean; will you promise me, dear?” indicate an intense proposal to pledge as a future member of the society. Her request is intimate, almost familial in nature, and resembles closely the language that Rosenberg references. This informal extension of a bid^[35] from one initiated member to a potential member could also be argued that it resembles the same language that would typically be expected to be used in a formal marriage proposal. The presence of this kind of language and intimacy being used before a young lady even becomes fully initiated further supports just how prevalent these types of interactions were for collegiate society women.

Featured as part of the many letters analyzed in Rosenberg’s piece are the correspondences between Martha and Phoebe. When speaking about the immense love she feels for her sister, Martha wrote to her daughter, "In sister Phoebe I have a real friend-she studies my comfort and waits on me like a child....She is exceedingly kind and this to all other homes (set aside yours) I would prefer-it is next to being with a daughter.",^[36] and in response Phoebe agrees with this level of affection. Also mentioned in one of Phoebe’s letters she writes about the impact that time and distance have on the fondness and longing she feels towards her sister, “Time can not destroy the fascination of her manner...her voice is music to the ear....".^[37] Much like the letters between Martha and Phoebe featured in Rosenberg’s piece, the following letters written by collegiate society members closely resemble the same level of passionate language.^[38] Grace Hubbard Shults, a sister of Alpha Phi wrote a letter to “her darling sisters” to which she included a heartfelt reveal of her yearning to be reunited with her fellow members, “I think of you by day and dream of you by night.”.^[39] Similar to the statements of Grace, are the heartfelt sentiments from her fellow Alpha Phi sister Clara Bradley. Bradley stated in her own words that despite the vast differences in geographical location from other sisters, her bond to her fellow sisters was “linked by fond affection’s chain.”^[40] Similar to the declarations of affection mentioned by Martha and Phoebe, Alpha Phi sisters used letters to tell their fellow sisters how they continuously longed for them at all times and truly felt that no matter what distance had separated them they still felt deeply connected to one another.

These words of loving proclamations between the society’s sisters are not only seen in members’ letter correspondences to one another but can also be seen heavily in original literary poems and songs. As will be seen in the forthcoming examples, passionate language similar to the sentiments seen earlier in Rosenberg’s examples is also found in the realms of these societies in the forms of poetry and song. Whether communicated specifically from one society sister to another, or to her group overall via their organization’s official publication, these expressions of love are abundant. Due to the amount of this kind of evidence being more than plentiful, the following portion of this piece will be dedicated entirely to showcasing various examples of poetry and song from several of the existing societies at the time.

 Starting off with the women of  Kappa Kappa Gamma (ΚΚΓ), this kind of language can be seen clearly in their own organization’s publication known as “The Golden Key”. Featured in their December 1882 edition is a poem that was written by a member who listed herself as C.M. Snyder. In her poem, she tries to offer advice to fellow Kappa’s on how to approach difficult situations in their life, and advises them in her last stanza to use:

“Soft answers, friendly words, and we
            Smile as the sun smiles on your growth,
Say you and your fraternity
            Draw encouragement from both.”^[41]

It is this last stanza that likely captures her overarching message, which is to approach life using her own personal charm, trusting encouragement from her fellow sisters, and trusting her own inner encouragement. This advice suggests a long-term aspect that is present amongst its message and sparks a response in a later issue of The Golden Key from her society sister Minnetta T. Taylor, who uses her own poem to wish C.M. Snyder all of the blessings that life has to offer after hearing her advice. Each stanza is filled with language that relates to testaments that were also mentioned in Rosenberg’s findings.

“Through misty miles of summer-land,
We greeting send and clasp of hand, As to an absent brother;
Whose kindly words, strong as the breeze
That ripples ‘mid the leafy trees,
Grim distance can not smother. “^[42]

In the beginning of her poem, Minnetta describes the locations and circumstances to which the kind words of her dear friend C.M. Snyder could be heard through. This flattering description of the strength and the beauty of Snyder's words bears a striking resemblance to a quote from Phoebe’s response letter to Martha from Rosenberg’s findings. In her letter Phoebe exclaimed the nature in which Martha’s voice could be heard through, “Time cannot destroy the fascination of her manner…her voice is music to the ear.”.^[43] Although the technical word used in each piece is different, one being “words”, and the other “voice”, their similarity in function to one another is close enough to not completely dismiss. It is also relevant that both of these sources speak to outside circumstances that their passion for one another has withstood. These women had met through their organization and continued to use its official publication as a platform to communicate their affections for one another. They speak of longing, of admiration, and of reminiscence of previous time spent together. It is also notable that their passion for their organization and for a fellow Kappa was so immense that it was displayed proudly in publication, not just in the form of a private letter to one another.

Similar to the passions expressed by the women of Kappa Kappa Gamma, the collegiate society known as Sigma Kappa also features an abundance of valuable pieces of literature and chorus that display the prominence of intimate language found in collegiate sisterhood. The following four examples all originate from the organization's 1896 official songbook, each one with similar beliefs of the involvement of love experienced in female friendship, the presence of lifelong dedication, and loyalty to one’s organization and members. The following piece is part of a chorus entitled “Sigma Kappa Forever”, and is filled with each of the previously mentioned beliefs surrounding collegiate society friendships:

“Sing for the union we love so well,
The union we will never sever,
Sing loud and clear to the name we hold dear,
Old Sigma Kappa forever.
We’re united in heart, we’re united in hand,
In the bond of our mystical union;
Our emblems before us,
Our banner above us,
And we love our dear Sigma Kappa.”^[44]

The title of this song all on its own alludes to what the song’s contents will entail, and in each stanza there proves to be a pattern that can be seen in the use of the word “love”. This word in this poem is reserved explicitly for the purpose of describing the feelings towards members unions with another, and the organization that brought them all together. Beyond the explicit use of the word “love”, there is further value in looking deeper into the use of the words “union” and “forever”. Both of these words are used several times throughout this piece and its title and are bold sentiments that resemble the same kind of intimate language that would be used to describe a marriage. This pattern of language continues throughout their songbook, and can be seen in  another excerpt from the following song “Mystic Bond”:

“Mystic bond that binds the Sigmas
Heart to heart and hand to hand!
Years and decades have no power to read it,
Rolling sea nor stretching land.”^[45]

Similar to the song seen in the previous example, the author wrote this song with an identical message that Sigmas are bonded in the deepest emotional manner. Another way the Sigmas make clear their admiration for each other through language is the use of their open motto “One Heart, One Way”. The following part of this song, entitled “One Heart, One Way”, entails exactly how this motto is weaved into the life and devoted female companionships of a Sigma Kappa sister:

“ Come, Sing in joyful chorus
As we meet again to-night;
Our star shines brightly o’er us,
And every heart is light;
Care and work we throw away,
Meet in love, “one heart, one way,”
Memories always bright and dear,
Ever wait to greet us here.
We care not for tomorrow
But only for tonight,
The Present’s full of pleasure.
The Future’s fair and bright,
Naught of grief to those who say
Until death, “one heart, one way,”
Troubles vanish, sorrows flee
From our love and unity.”^[46]

In a similar manner, this same pattern of experiencing automatic release from anxieties and troubles can be seen in Rosenberg’s example of the relationship that occurred between Molly and Helena. Stated by Molly in a letter to Helena, she expresses the very same prediction that is present in the Sigma Kappa song, “ I have that delightful feeling that it doesn't matter much what I say or how I say it, since we shall meet so soon and forget in that moment that we were ever separated.... I shall see you soon and be content.”.^[47] Looking at the previous song excerpt from Sigma Kappa, it is unlikely one would be able to ignore the language present in each verse that showcases its author’s passion towards her organization’s motto and what its deeper meaning entails. As explained by the author and fellow Sigma, Emily P. Meader throughout her chorus, each time Sigma’s were reunited with one another it was almost like an automatic cure to their troubles and sorrows as a result of their unity and deep love for one another.

This presence of love and connectedness to one another that is visible through poetry is also seen in a similar organization known as I.C. Sorosis (ΠΒΦ) and in their societies’ publication, The Arrow. Featured at the bottom of their oldest recorded edition of the magazine is a poem that was written by Alma Devore in 1885, and speaks to the widespread feelings towards fellow sisters throughout the organization:

            “A valiant band of sisters we,
 Joined in the golden bond
 Of love, and truth, and charity,
And faith in the beyond.”^[48]

The sisters of I.C. Sorosis (ΠΒΦ), according to this poem, are bonded to one another through some sort of invisible, and mystic force, which among other values supports their love for each other as fellow sisters. They, like the women discussed in Rosenberg’s examples, rely on one another at the deepest levels. It may be relevant to note that the following March 1889 edition was created shortly after I.C. Sorosis made its official name change to Pi Beta Phi in 1888, and as a result of this change the organization produced several editions of The Arrow that were filled with new songs and poetry for the rebranded organization to enjoy and adopt into their own chapter’s vast chorus list. Another song included in this edition is the following chorus which describes the gleeful and longing feelings for their fellow members:

“When we’re sitting round our circle,
With our friends and sisters dear,
Do we think of absent loved ones
Who have often met us here?
Friends who oft our hearts have lightened
With a cheerful word or song;
Do they think of us with gladness,
For our presence do they long?”^[49]

This piece of poetry is especially relevant because its main message is a desire to know if her fellow sisters are longing for her the same way she is longing for them. While the message may be generalized as it is communicated to the entire organization rather than one specific society sister, it may be a relevant note that the poem was included in the organization’s list of official literature. This formal preservation of the poem on the organization’s national level could possibly suggest that its message of hopeful longing for fellow society friends was a message that was commonly felt, and encouraged throughout its national register of society members. In other words, the decision to officially recognize this poem with such a clear and focalized message suggests that the practice of longing deeply for fellow society sisters was either intentionally or unintentionally endorsed as a standard occurrence amongst its members.

While it may be easy to argue that these feelings of longing were promoted by Pi Beta Phi’s national organization headquarters, it is also important to understand that this presence of longing for the reuniting of two friends and the subsequent assurance of equal feelings is also argued clearly through the correspondences present in Rosenberg’s publication. This same request for assurance and desire to express longing can be seen in one of her particular examples, regarding the companionship of Jeannie & Sarah. In one letter to her beloved Sarah, Jeannie exclaimed her longing concisely: “My darling how I long for the time when I shall see you”.^[50] Following this pattern seen in the Pi Beta Phi poem, Jeannie then follows up in her immediate letter with a request for assurance from Sarah by asking her to express these feelings equally in her next letter to Jeannie, “I want you to tell me in your next letter, to assure me, that I am your dearest. ... I do not doubt you, & I am not jealous but I long to hear you say it once more & it seems already a long time since your voice fell on my ear.”.^[51] The similarities between these two examples, at least in reference to the same pattern of passionately longing for another and then wondering immediately after if they too long in a similar manner is a connection that cannot be ignored between these two sources.

 Also featured in this same publication, filled with officially recognized ΠΒΦ literature is the following portion of a piece of poetry that sets out to express the values and good feelings that are supported & associated with “friendship’s chain”:

“Yet wish them among us.
Our Arrow gleams
With sisters to love us,
How bright it seems!
With sisters to love us,
How bright it seems!
Words cannot utter
The joy we feel
As our dear Arrow
To us they reveal.
Truth will ne’er deceive us;
Hope and truth remain,
Those will never leave us
Bound by friendship’s chain”^[52]

This poem is another clear ode to passionate and long-term intimate friendship. The piece starts by describing an idyllic scene where life is pleasant already but then asserts that even in a season of general pleasure the desire for sisterhood from one’s organization would continue to be a consistent forethought. This transition can most clearly be recognized in the line which exclaims “Yet wish them among us”, right after describing “Scenes that are the brightest”. Despite the word “love” clearly being associated with members' feelings for one another, the poem in its conclusion makes one final assertion that these same friends are “Those (that) will never leave us, (and are) Bound by friendship’s chain”. This same exclamation about the durability of society-made friendships can be seen in similar proclamations featured in poetry from other national societies as well. Another separate secret society known commonly as Alpha Phi also supports this trend through the publishing of the following poem in their national publication in 1888 known as the “Quarterly”:

“The might of true friendship all space can o’ercome,
Though widely we’re sundered, in heart we’re still one,
Syracuse – our fair mother – reach one hand out west,
The other to eastward, now trio, so blest.”^[53]

This segment is part of a much larger poem entitled “Alpha Phi” and was written by an Alpha chapter 1879 class member named Nellie George Hollett. In Hollet’s piece, she reveals her belief that despite the wide distances between all of the Alpha Phi sisters that “in heart we’re still one”. This proclamation clarifies that even with the massive strain that distance can put on a friendship, each member knows in their own deepest thoughts that she is still somehow permanently and passionately connected to her female companions.  By continuing to look into these literary sources provided by these societies, It is clear that there is abundant evidence of intimate language present in these organizations' various documents and publications that are sufficient enough to draw significant connections and recognize similar patterns that are expressed by Rosenberg.

Another aspect argued by Rosenberg is the frequency of overnight, sometimes extensive vacations/getaways that would occur between two or more women. In her piece, she claimed that the average nineteenth-century, white, and middle-class woman commonly found herself on frequent visits to other women’s homes and on outings with other women like her. The time spent together on these outings varied, and according to Rosenberg: “Entire days, even weeks, might be spent almost exclusively with other women.”^[54] Interestingly, evidence of these extended adventures can also be found in these societies’ official publications in the form of poetry and written records. The following piece of poetry was included in the Pi Beta Phi Beta chapter’s national updates in 1888 with the purpose to express the power of friendship felt by each of the sisters after an overnight excursion to socialize with another chapter:

“Some souls there are that never change,
Some friendships that endure;
That neither time nor years estrange,
Some hearts divine and pure –
And as we meet them here and there
About the world, how dear they are !
And were it not for friends like those,
To bless our cheerless fate,
The life we live on earth below
Were more than desolate,
And this dark, lonely world of ours,
Were like a garden void of flowers.”^[55]

This poem, although not directly cited to any specific poet, was included by Annie L. Yeoman in her chapter’s monthly updates to the rest of the Pi Beta Phi national organization as a means to further emphasize the “delightful time” the Beta chapter girls had while visiting their Delta chapter in Illinois. Furthermore, Yeoman states explicitly in this same update that each of the lines included in the poem was felt “deep down in their hearts”.^[56] The lines expressed at the end of this poem are especially relevant to conveying the level of importance and impact that these kinds of friendships had on these women. As the poet describes the importance of this kind of friendship in their lives, they compare the absence of this friendship to a world that is “desolate”, like “a garden void of flowers”, or “dark, lonely”. Not only does this poem convey the enormous role that female friendship played in these women’s lives, but the purpose behind its inclusion also suggests that the women of Pi Beta Phi were not strangers to the practice of “visiting” as described by Rosenberg.^[57]

Further evidence of these adventures can also be seen in the poetry exchange from Minnetta T. Taylor to C.M. Snyder, two women who were discussed earlier in this piece for their loving communications with one another. As mentioned previously, these two women were involved in a poetry exchange through their society’s official publication The Golden Key, and in part of the next stanza of Taylor’s response piece to Snyder, she continues her poem with another hint towards Rosenberg’s findings about the normalcy of extensive retreats between female companions.^[58] Taylor mentions at the end of stanza two, memories of time spent with Snyder, recalling:

“When skies are bright and earth is sweet,
And flowers are strewn beneath
Of summer months together–”^[59]

In this brief stanza, Taylor captures a scene of blissful nature and then asserts “Of summer months together” to recapture time spent in the past with her beloved friend. Further evidence of similar visits and outings can also be seen within the recorded activities of collegiate society women, specifically the ladies of the Zeta chapter of Gamma Phi Beta in 1904 who Documented their travels together to a semi-local country house for a three-day long getaway together. The house, belonging to an initiated member's uncle, had been reserved at the time just for their society retreat. The retreat, reserved for upperclassmen, included a grand feast, pictures on the beach, chestnut hunting, and singing of fraternity songs.^[60] While documenting this adventure, Helen Brown describes the overall mood after their grand adventures as so, “That night we had our fraternity meeting and each girl felt, I think, that among the greatest pleasures of our house party, was to be numbered the fact that we were all together and all Gamma Phis away from everything and everyone that might worry away, too, from the particular Freshmen, for even they worry one sometimes.”.^[61] A small connection, both in this example of overnight adventures and the information provided by Rosenberg is the presence of using country homes (often belonging to a family member or close friend) as the rural destinations for many overnight/extensive visits among friends. ^[62]                  

These organizations were created and operated with the intent of spreading foundational values that functioned to sustain vast social networks for women. These values, as discovered previously, include the practice of displaying seemingly endless amounts of loyalty and love towards one another. As revealed through documented evidence, the women actively involved in these collegiate societies sought out female companions, devoted time to writing passionate poems and songs describing their endless love for their newfound sisterhood, and were elated to participate in overnight excursions with their fellow members. Similarly, the involvement and emotional commitment that alumni showed to their organization remained consistent in the frequency of writing to one another, raising their children in the organization, and seeking out opportunities to be of aid to the organization long after their active collegiate involvement. It is this likely intention of the societies to cultivate lifelong intimate friendships that continued to support the construction of social platforms for vast national networks of women to come into existence. Carrol Smith-Rosenberg examined the ways middle-class white women experienced their relationships with each other and provided a variety of details to give modern historians a solid understanding of the complexities of female companionship in the nineteenth century. Like the sources analyzed by Rosenberg, these collegiate societies offer another significant historical avenue that expands on the complexities and likely origins of the nineteenth-century female world of love and friendship.

 

^[1] Note: While both of these sources in one way or another provide relevant information surrounding the 19th century women's collegiate experience, and do so without addressing Rosenberg’s “World of Love and Ritual”, there are other sources that cite this specific piece to expand on other topics. Historians such as Amanda Vickery,  Leonore Davidoff, Catherine Hall, and Catherine Clinton have all cited Rosenberg in their own publications to support their claims on other topics related to nineteenth century women's history. The topics being discussed by these historians who referenced Rosenberg include the two sides of the English women’s sphere in history, discussing the family fortunes for English men and women, and even the world of the southern plantation mistress. However, despite the importance of these subjects alone, none are majorly concerned with expanding on the intricacies of women’s relationships and companionships with one another in America, much less commenting on the role of women’s collegiate organizations in relation to this subject either. For more information on these historians publications, please see their citations located in the “Works Cited” portion of this piece.

^[2]  Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 9

^[3] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 18.

^[4] Ibid.

^[5] Hudson, T. Belle. “The Arrow”. June 1888. Pg. 123.

^[6] Walrath, Caroline Eliza Morton. Kappa Kappa Gamma (Beta Tau) Scrapbook. 1884-1894. Pg. 3.

^[7]  Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 16.

^[8]  Ibid.

^[9]  Ibid.

^[10] Vosper, B. Zaidee. “The Crescent: Beta Chapter”. June 1903. Pg. 13-14.

^[11] Bates, Willard Esther. “The Crescent: Delta Chapter. June 1903. Pg. 17.

^[12]   Bates, Willard Esther. “The Crescent: Delta Chapter.”  June 1903. Pg. 17.

^[13] Gilbert, Kate Elizabeth Hogoboom. “Reminisces.” 1892. Alpha Phi Digital Archives. History IT. Pg. 1.

^[14] Ibid.

^[15] Rush, Octavia Osgood Andrew. Letter to Delta Girls. May 23, 1913.

^[16] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 5.

^[17] Ibid.

^[18] Ibid.

^[19] “Business Manager of The Key Scrapbook”. 1886-1896. Pg. 40.

^[20] To clarify, the “little key” mentioned in this quote is in reference to their membership badge, which is comparable to a small brooch in the shape of a key that is typically worn on the left side of their chest, just over where their heart is located.

^[21]  “Business Manager of The Key Scrapbook”. 1886-1896. Pg. 43.

^[22] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 13-14.

^[23] Kansas Alpha Chapter. “The Arrow: Pi Beta Phi Songs”. Pi Beta Phi Archives. March 1889. Pg. 7.

^[24] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 4.

^[25] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 8.

^[26] Wardlaw, Bessie Mae, editor. Adelphean (Alpha Delta Pi) Yearbook. Wesleyan College , 1899. Pg. 12.

^[27] MacDonald, Jessica North. History of Alpha Delta Pi. 1931. The Powers Press. Pg. 31.

^[28] Phi Mu Coat of Arms. Chartering of Phi Mu Fraternity, August 1904. Phi Mu Digital History.

^[29] Pi Beta Phi Brand Guidelines. Pg. 4.

^[30] Jenny Thompson. Alpha Phi International Fraternity The First Fifty Years, 1872-1922. 2013. Pg. 12.

^[31] Tri Delta. Symbols and Colors: Coat of Arms.

^[32] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975.  Pg. 18.

^[33] Fredrick, Louese Caroline. Philomathean (Phi Mu) Yearbook. Wesleyan College , 1900. Pg. 32-35.

^[34] Fredrick, Louese Caroline. Philomathean (Phi Mu) Yearbook. 1900. Pg.32.

^[35] A “bid” is the society terminology for an invitation to join the society.

^[36] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 13.

^[37] Ibid.

^[38] Ibid.

^[39] First mentioned by Jenny Thompson in her publication “Alpha Phi International Fraternity The First Fifty Years, 1872-1922” are a series of letters written between a group of Alpha Phi sisters. Included in this collection is a letter from Grace Hubbard Shults, entitled “My Darling Sisters” written on April 28th, 1876.

^[40]  Jenny Thompson. Alpha Phi International Fraternity The First Fifty Years, 1872-1922. 2013. Pg. 12.

^[41] Snyder, C.M.. To the Ladies of the “Golden Key”. December, 1882.

^[42] Taylor, Minnetta T. To C.M. Snyder of the “Crescent”. The Golden Key. June 1882.

^[43] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 13.

^[44] Meader, P. Emily. “Sigma Kappa Odes: Sigma Kappa Forever”. Sigma Kappa Archives. 1896. Pg 3.

^[45] Sawtelle, E. Alice. “Sigma Kappa Odes: Mystic Bond”. Sigma Kappa Archives. 1896. Pg. 5.

^[46] Meader, P. Emily. “Sigma Kappa Odes: One Heart, One Way”. Sigma Kappa Archives. 1896. Pg. 12.

^[47] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 7.

^[48] Devore, Alma. Poem. The Arrow. May 1885.

^[49] Panahaker, F. Cora. “The Arrow: Untitled Poem”. Pi Beta Phi Archives. March 1889. Pg. 8.

^[50] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 4.

^[51] Ibid.

^[52] Kansas Alpha. “The Arrow”. Pi Beta Phi Archives. March 1889. Pg. 10

^[53] Hollett, G. Nellie. “Alpha Phi Quarterly: Alpha Phi”. Alpha Phi Archives. 1888. Pg. 4.

^[54] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 10.

^[55] Yoemans, L. Annie. “The Arrow: Illinois Beta”. Pi Beta Phi Archives. March 1888. Pg. 16.

^[56] Yoemans, L. Annie. “The Arrow: Illinois Beta”. Pi Beta Phi Archives. March 1888. Pg. 16.

^[57] Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.” Signs. 1975. Pg. 10.

^[58] Ibid.

^[59] Taylor, Minnetta T. To C.M. Snyder of the “Crescent”. The Golden Key. June 1882.

^[60] Brown, Helen. “The Crescent: A Gamma Phi House Party.” Gamma Phi Beta Archives. January 1904. Pg. 5.

^[61]  Brown, Helen. “The Crescent: A Gamma Phi House Party.” Pg. 6.

^[62]  Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. “The Female World of Love and Ritual: Relations between Women in Nineteenth-Century America.”. Signs. 1975. Pg. 11.